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HomeImagesPaisaje con esquiladores (1616). Jan Wildens. Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer. Landscape with...

Paisaje con esquiladores (1616). Jan Wildens. Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer. Landscape with shearers

Paisaje con esquiladores (1616). Jan Wildens. Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer. Landscape with shearers
laks memory watch
Image by Antonio Ventaja
Depósito del Museo Nacional del Prado
Deposit of the Museo Nacional del Prado

EL PAISAJE
El paisaje como tema pictórico aparece cuando la pintura está ya desarrollada.

1. En la pintura románica el fondo es plano y monocromo.

2. Habrá que esperar al gótico para que en los fondos empiece a aparecer algo de naturaleza para dar profundidad a la escena donde se desenvuelven las figuras pintadas. Al principio es algún árbol pintado de forma muy infantil que después evoluciona perfeccionándose. Se añaden casitas en la distancia, también para dar profundidad, algún camino o río que serpentee… y ya está el precedente del paisaje. Pero aún no es un paisaje, porque no tienen identidad propia. Solo sirve de fondo al cuadro y le ayuda a dar profundidad a la escena.

3. Todavía en el renacimiento italiano del Quattrocento el paisaje no es más que el telón de fondo de un teatro donde en el escenario se está desarrollando una obra precisa, con personajes concretos, aunque este decorado tenga cada vez mayor personalidad.
Hay un momento en que al crecer la calidad del fondo como paisaje y minimizarse las figuras de la escena ya no se sabe si estamos en una pintura convencional religiosa o profana, o en un paisaje. Tal es el caso, por ejemplo, del cuadro de Giorgione La Tempestad, 1508, donde sus extraños y casi irreales personajes, una madre casi desnuda amamantando a un niño contemplada con sorpresa por un caminante, están alojados en un paisaje preciso de árboles, río, camino, puente, casas, etc. sobre el que se cierne una tempestad en la lejanía, con rayo incluido.

Para definir el paisaje como obra de arte independiente debemos considerar una pintura cuyo objeto, por primera vez, no sea la figura divina o humana, sino la naturaleza en sí, aun sin intención paisajista. Las figuras, si las hay, solo servirán para rellenar o justificar algo del paisaje, un camino, una carreta, un río, o bien para dimensionar los objetos del paisaje, árboles, casas, puentes, ruinas etc. por comparación de sus dimensiones con las del hombre, que se convierte así en referencia métrica.

4. Se suele decir que el paisaje como género nace en los Países Bajos, y que Patinir, 1480-1524 está considerado como el primer paisajista. Sin embargo debemos retrasar este momento cronológico a la aparición de Peter Brueghel el Viejo 1525-1569, por las razones que vamos a exponer: Patinir pinta algunos cuadros que como el citado de Giorgione casi pueden considerarse paisaje, pero sólo porque este ocupa la mayor parte de la escena, no como fondo sino casi como obra propiamente. No obstante, las figuras son aún el objeto principal del motivo de la pintura, religiosa o mitológica. En el Museo del Prado hay dos cuadros que son muy significativos y que merece la pena visitar. El primero es Las tentaciones de San Antonio Abad del cual sabemos por la documentación existente en El Escorial que el paisaje es de Patinir y las figuras de Quentin Metsys, con lo cual ya está apareciendo Patinir como pintor especializado en paisaje. En la otra obra, El paso de la laguna Estigia, pintada después de 1521, los personajes están tan minimizados que casi se pueden considerar un pretexto ya que el paisaje es el verdadero protagonista. Sin embargo, todavía son los que con su presencia personalizan el mito de la laguna Estigia y le dan nombre, haciendo que el cuadro pertenezca al género mitológico.
Al analizar la pintura de Brueghel veremos que algunos de sus cuadros ya son verdaderos paisajes porque las figuras que aparecen están relegadas a un segundo término en su significación, carecen de importancia, son anónimos. Su cuadro Cazadores en la nieve de fecha 1565, en el Museo de la Historia de Viena, es un puro paisaje, donde los cazadores que se ven en primer término solo sirven como referente, e incluso están colocados de espaldas, y los patinadores que aparecen en la lejanía sobre un lago no pasan de ser poco más que puntitos. Y este cuadro no es una excepción, porque forma parte de una serie de ellos que representan meses del año, tales como Regreso de los rebaños, La siega del heno o La cosecha, de características similares al anterior.

5. El siglo XVIII traerá el paisaje como tema independiente y el pintor paisajista como especialidad, alcanzando pleno desarrollo sobre todo en Holanda, donde se dará en esta época el siglo de oro de su pintura.
La escuela holandesa del paisaje crea una enorme variedad de temas: paisaje de invierno, de bosques, de dunas, acuáticos con ríos, lagos, canales o el mar, las llamadas marinas. Era lógico que también el mar fuera tomado como tema de paisaje por la enorme influencia que este medio ha ejercido sobre Holanda, hasta el punto de que un 10 % de su población había vivido alguna vez en el mar. Además el atractivo del tema marino para un pintor aumenta al considerar la enorme cantidad de caras con que puede presentarse: tormentoso, con niebla, calmo, con oleaje, en tonos claros o sombríos, con colores azules, verdes, grises…
Aunque hubo multitud de pintores paisajistas holandeses en este siglo, podríamos citar para ir familiarizándonos con ellos, a Avercamp en temas de invierno, Jan van Goyen, 1596-1656, en ríos, Jacob Ruisdael, 1629-1682 y sobre todo Hobbema, 1658-1709, quizá el mejor de todos ellos, de gran colorido, a parte de un largo etc. de los cuales los españoles casi no tenemos conocimiento, ni nuestros museos obras debido a las malas relaciones en aquella época entre ambos países.
Sin embargo se ha dicho que los mejores paisajes de esta época los hicieron los pintores que no están considerados como especialistas en este tema, como fueron Rubens, Rembrandt o Poussin. Como siempre, el genio sobresale en aquello que realiza.

(Merece la pena hacer una consideración técnica al estudiar el paisaje, sobre la altura a que los distintos pintores sitúan la línea del horizonte dentro del cuadro. Si el pintor la coloca en una posición muy alta por colocarse en alto él mismo al pintar, como puede verse el escenario de un teatro desde el último piso, representará mucha tierra y poco cielo. Si su posición está baja, la línea de horizonte estará baja también y el paisaje tendrá mucho cielo, nubes, etc. y poca tierra. Sería el caso de un espectador que mirase el teatro desde el patio de butacas.
El pintor maneja esto según le interese magnificar una cosa u otra. Por ejemplo, Patinir pone la línea del horizonte alta, de tal manera que el cielo ocupe 1/5 de la superficie del cuadro y la tierra 4/5, porque aún está interesado en las figuras que ocupan el paisaje y necesita espacio para distribuirlas. La escuela holandesa invertirá estos términos, 3/4 y 1/4 respectivamente para poderse recrear en la pintura de cielos borrascosos, nubosos, etc. dejando menos espacio para la tierra plana de Holanda.)

Volviendo al desarrollo cronológico del paisaje podemos decir que en el siglo XVIII se continúa con fuerza este tema.
De Italia traemos a colación, como curiosidad la aparición de unos nuevos paisajistas que se especializan, concretamente en Venecia, en pintar paisajes de la ciudad, por lo que se les llamó “vedutistas”. Concretamente son Canaletto, 1697-1788, y Guardi, 1712-1793 y el fin de esta pintura será el que los visitantes ilustres de Venecia que ya empiezan a llegar en esta época tengan un recuerdo gráfico de la ciudad. ¿Verdad que éste movimiento suena al actual turismo veneciano con sus fotografías y postales de canales y góndolas?
En Inglaterra con Gainsborough, 1727-88 se empezará a crear la escuela británica del paisaje, que va a originar a lo largo del tiempo una tradición de éste género que tendrá enorme importancia.

6. Esta tradición paisajista culminará en el siglo XIX con dos pintores famosos, Constable 1776-1837, una de cuyas obras podemos verla en el Museo Thyssen Bonermisza, La esclusa, y Turner, considerado como el mejor paisajista inglés del siglo XIX y cuya forma de tratar la luz va a influir decisivamente en el impresionismo francés, como podemos ver, por ejemplo en El Fighting Temeraire remolcado a su última dársena para ser desguazado, 1839, de la National Gallery de Londres.

7. El género de paisaje continúa hasta nuestros días y por él pasaron magníficos pintores adscritos a diferentes escuelas (realismo, romanticismo,…) que dejaron obras maestras; y entre ellos, los impresionistas, que buscaron en sus paisajes precisamente eso, una impresión, plasmar, por ejemplo, el reflejo de la luz sobre el agua, la reverberación del cielo o de las orillas de un río o el efecto de los rayos del sol sobre los árboles o sobre la nieve.
(Francisco Martín Gil, Claves para entender un cuadro)
_____________

THE LANDSCAPE
The landscape as a pictorial theme appears when the painting is already developed.

1. In Romanesque painting the background is flat and monochrome.

2. We will have to wait for the Gothic so that some nature begins to appear in the background to give depth to the scene where the painted figures are developed. At the beginning it is some tree painted in a very childish way that later evolves perfecting itself. Little houses are added in the distance, also to give depth, some path or river that snakes… and there is already the precedent of the landscape. But it’s not a landscape yet, because they have no identity of their own. It only serves as a background for the painting and helps to give depth to the scene.

3. Even in the Italian Renaissance of the Quattrocento, the landscape is only the backdrop of a theatre where a precise work is being developed on stage, with specific characters, even though this set has an ever greater personality.
There is a moment when, as the quality of the background as a landscape grows and the figures of the scene are minimised, it is no longer known whether we are in a conventional religious or profane painting, or in a landscape. Such is the case, for example, of Giorgione’s painting La Tempestad, 1508, where her strange and almost unreal characters, an almost naked mother nursing a child watched in surprise by a hiker, are housed in a precise landscape of trees, river, road, bridge, houses, etc. over which a storm is brewing in the distance, with lightning included.

To define the landscape as an independent work of art we must consider a painting whose object, for the first time, is not the divine or human figure, but nature itself, even without any landscape intention. The figures, if there are any, will only serve to fill or justify something in the landscape, a road, a cart, a river, or to dimension the objects in the landscape, trees, houses, bridges, ruins etc. by comparing their dimensions with those of man, who thus becomes a metric reference.

4. It is often said that landscape as a genre was born in the Netherlands, and that Patinir, 1480-1524 is considered the first landscape painter. However, we must delay this chronological moment to the appearance of Peter Brueghel the Elder 1525-1569, for the reasons we are going to explain: Patinir paints some paintings that, like the one mentioned by Giorgione, can almost be considered as landscape, but only because it takes up most of the scene, not as background but almost as a work itself. However, the figures are still the main object of the painting’s motif, religious or mythological. In the Prado Museum there are two paintings that are very significant and worth visiting. The first is The Temptations of Saint Anthony the Abbot, of which we know from the existing documentation in El Escorial that the landscape is by Patinir and the figures by Quentin Metsys, with which Patinir is already appearing as a painter specialising in landscape. In the other work, The Passage of the Styx Lagoon, painted after 1521, the characters are so minimized that they can almost be considered a pretext since the landscape is the true protagonist. However, they are still the ones who, with their presence, personalize the myth of the Styx lake and give it a name, making the painting belong to the mythological genre.
When analyzing Brueghel’s painting we will see that some of his paintings are already true landscapes because the figures that appear are relegated to a second term in their meaning, they are unimportant, they are anonymous. His painting Hunters in the Snow, dated 1565, in the Museum of History in Vienna, is a pure landscape, where the hunters seen in the foreground only serve as a reference, and are even placed on their backs, and the skaters that appear in the distance on a lake are only little more than dots. And this painting is not an exception, because it is part of a series that represent months of the year, such as Return of the Herds, The Haymaking or The Harvest, with similar characteristics to the previous one.

5. The 18th century will bring the landscape as an independent subject and the landscape painter as a speciality, reaching full development especially in Holland, where the golden century of his painting will take place at this time.
The Dutch school of the landscape creates an enormous variety of themes: winter landscape, of forests, of dunes, aquatic with rivers, lakes, channels or the sea, the so called marines. It was logical that the sea was also taken as a landscape theme because of the enormous influence that this medium has exerted on the Netherlands, to the point that 10% of its population had once lived in the sea. In addition, the attraction of the marine theme for a painter increases when considering the enormous amount of faces with which it can present itself: stormy, with fog, calm, with waves, in light or dark tones, with blue, green, grey colours…
Although there were many Dutch landscape painters in this century, we could cite, to get acquainted with them, Avercamp in winter themes, Jan van Goyen, 1596-1656, in rivers, Jacob Ruisdael, 1629-1682 and above all Hobbema, 1658-1709, perhaps the best of them all, very colourful, apart from a long etc. of which we Spaniards have almost no knowledge, nor our museums works due to the bad relations at that time between both countries.
However, it has been said that the best landscapes of this period were made by painters who are not considered specialists in this subject, such as Rubens, Rembrandt or Poussin. As always, genius excels in what it does.

(It is worth making a technical consideration when studying the landscape, about the height at which the different painters place the line of the horizon within the painting. If the painter places it in a very high position by placing himself high when painting, as the stage of a theatre can be seen from the top floor, it will represent much earth and little sky. If his position is low, the horizon line will be low too and the landscape will have a lot of sky, clouds, etc. and little land. It would be the case of a spectator looking at the theatre from the stalls.
The painter handles this according to his interest in magnifying one thing or another. For example, Patinir sets the horizon line high, so that the sky occupies 1/5 of the surface of the painting and the earth 4/5, because he is still interested in the figures that occupy the landscape and needs space to distribute them. The Dutch school will invert these terms, 3/4 and 1/4 respectively to be able to recreate in the painting stormy, cloudy skies, etc. leaving less space for the flat land of Holland 🙂

Going back to the chronological development of the landscape, we can say that in the 18th century this theme is strongly continued.
From Italy we bring up, as a curiosity, the appearance of some new landscape painters who specialized, specifically in Venice, in painting city landscapes, for which they were called "Vedutists". Specifically, they are Canaletto, 1697-1788, and Guardi, 1712-1793, and the aim of this painting will be to provide illustrious visitors to Venice who are beginning to arrive at this time with a graphic memory of the city. Doesn’t this movement sound like modern-day Venetian tourism with its photographs and postcards of canals and gondolas?
In England, with Gainsborough, 1727-88, the British school of landscape began to be created, which over time would give rise to a tradition of this genre that would be of enormous importance.

6. This tradition of landscape painting culminated in the 19th century with two famous painters, Constable 1776-1837, one of whose works we can see in the Thyssen Bonermisza Museum, The Lock, and Turner, considered the best English landscape painter of the 19th century and whose way of treating light was to have a decisive influence on French impressionism, as we can see, for example, in The Fighting Temeraire towed to its last dock to be scrapped, 1839, from the National Gallery in London.

7. The landscape genre continues to the present day and magnificent painters belonging to different schools (realism, romanticism,…) passed through it, leaving behind masterpieces; and among them, the impressionists, who sought in their landscapes precisely that, an impression, to capture, for example, the reflection of light on water, the reverberation of the sky or the banks of a river or the effect of the sun’s rays on trees or on snow.
(Francisco Martín Gil, Keys to Understanding a Picture)

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